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Nelson's Column during the Great Smog of 1952 The Great Smog of '52 or Big Smoke[1] was a severe air pollution event that affected London, England, in December 1952. A period of cold weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless conditions, collected airborne pollutants mostly from the use of coal to form a thick layer of smog over the city. It lasted from Friday 5 to Tuesday, 9 December, 1952, and then quickly dispersed after a change in the weather. Although it caused major disruption due to the effect on visibility, and even penetrated indoor areas, it was not thought to be a significant event at the time, with London having experienced many smog events in the past, so called "pea soupers". In the following weeks however, medical reports estimated that 4,000 had died prematurely and 100,000 more were made ill because of the smog's effects on the human respiratory tract. More recent research suggests that the number of fatalities was considerably higher at around 12,000.[2] It is considered the worst air pollution event in the history of the United Kingdom,[3] and the most significant in terms of its impact on environmental research, government regulation, and public awareness of the relationship between air quality and health.[2] It led to several changes in practices and regulations, including the Clean Air Act 1956. Contents 1 Events 1.1 Sources of pollution 1.2 Weather 1.3 Impact on London 2 Health impact 3 Environmental impact 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links // Events Sources of pollution The weather preceding and during the smog meant that Londoners were burning more coal than usual to keep warm. Post-war domestic coal tended to be of a relatively low-grade, sulphurous variety (economic necessity meant that higher quality 'hard' coals tended to be exported), which increased the amount of sulphur dioxide in the smoke. There were also numerous coal fired power stations within the Greater London area, including Battersea, Bankside, and Kingston upon Thames, all of which added to the pollution levels. (Research suggests that additional pollution prevention systems fitted at Battersea may actually have worsened the air quality, reducing the output of soot at the cost of increased sulphur dioxide, though this is not clear.) In addition, there was pollution and smoke from vehicle exhaust – particularly from diesel-fueled buses which had replaced the recently scrapped electric tram system – and from other industrial and commercial sources.[4] Prevailing winds had also blown heavily polluted air across the English Channel from industrial areas of Europe . Weather On 4 December 1952, an anticyclone settled over a windless London, causing a temperature inversion with very cold, stagnant air trapped under a layer (or "lid") of warm air.[5][6] The resultant fog, mixed with chimney smoke, such particulates as those from vehicle exhausts, and such other pollutants as sulphur dioxide) formed a persistent smog, which blanketed the capital the following day. (The presence of tarry particles of soot gave the smog its yellow-black colour – hence the nickname "peasouper".)[4] The absence of significant wind prevented its dispersal and allowed an unprecedented build up of pollutants. Impact on London Although London was accustomed to thick fogs, this one was denser and longer lasting than any previously seen.[7] Visibility was reduced to a few yards ("It's like you were blind", commented one observer),[8] making driving difficult or impossible. Public transport ground to a halt, apart from the London Underground; and the ambulance service stopped running, forcing the sick to make their own way to hospital.[8] The smog even seeped indoors, resulting in the cancellation or abandonment of concerts and film screenings as visibility fell in large enclosed spaces, and stages and screens became harder to see from the seats. Outdoor sports events were also affected. Health impact Initially, there was no great panic, as London was renowned for its fog. In the weeks that followed, however, statistics compiled by medical services found that the fog had killed 4,000 people.[9] Most of the victims were very young, elderly, or had pre-existing respiratory problems. In February 1953, Lieutenant-Colonel Lipton suggested, in the House of Commons, that the fog had caused 6,000 deaths and that 25,000 more people had claimed sickness benefits in London in that period.[10] Most of the deaths were caused by respiratory tract infections from hypoxia and as a result of mechanical obstruction of the air passages by pus arising from lung infections caused by the smog. The lung infections were mainly bronchopneumonia or acute purulent bronchitis superimposed upon chronic bronchitis.[11] More recent research suggests that the number of fatalities was considerably higher, at around 12,000.[2] Environmental impact The death toll formed an important impetus to the modern environmental movement; and it led to a rethinking of air pollution, as the smog had demonstrated its lethal potential. New regulations were put in place, restricting the use of dirty fuels in industry and banning black smoke. In the years that followed, various legislation such as the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968, and the City of London (Various Powers) Act 1954, greatly restricted air pollution. See also 1939 St. Louis smog Donora Smog of 1948 References ^ Stegeman, John J. & Solow, Andrew R. A Look Back at the London Smog of 1952 and the Half Century Since; A Half Century Later: Recollections of the London Fog (Environmental Health Perspectives, Dec 2002). ^ a b c Bell, Michelle L.; Michelle L. Bell, Devra L. Davis, Tony Fletcher (January 2004). "A Retrospective Assessment of Mortality from the London Smog Episode of 1952: The Role of Influenza and Pollution". Environ Health Perspect 112 (1): 6–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.6539. http://www.ehponline.org/members/2003/6539/6539.html.  ^ McKie, Robin & Townsend, Mark. Great Smog is history, but foul air still kills (The Observer, 24 Nov 2002). ^ a b Mason, Nigel; Hughes, Peter; Mc Mllan, Randall. Introduction to environmental physics (CRC, 2001), pp112-113. ^ "Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme". Ace.mmu.ac.uk. 1952-12-04. http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/Resources/Teaching_Packs/Key_Stage_4/Air_Quality/02.html. Retrieved 2010-06-30.  ^ "Met Office Education: Teens - Case Studies - The Great Smog". Metoffice.gov.uk. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/teens/casestudy_great_smog.html#p02. Retrieved 2010-06-30.  ^ Greater London Authority. 50 Years On: The struggle for air quality in London since the great smog of December 1952, p3. ^ a b NPR. Killer Fog of '52 (National Public Radio). ^ "The Great Smog of 1952". www.metoffice.gov.uk. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/education/teens/casestudy_great_smog.html. Retrieved 2008-08-17.  ^ http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1953/feb/16/nutty-slack ^ Camps, Francis E (Ed.) (1976). Gradwohl's Legal Medicine (Bristol: John Wright & Sons Ltd, 3rd ed.) ISBN 0 7236 0310 3. p236. Further reading Bell, Michelle L. and Davis, Devra Lee. Reassessment of the Lethal London Fog of 1952: Novel Indicators of Acute and Chronic Consequences of Acute Exposure to Air Pollution ("Environmental Health Perspectives", June 2001). Berridge, Virginia (Ed.). The Big Smoke: Fifty Years After the 1952 London Smog (University of London, Institute of Historical Research, 2005) Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987). Greater London Authority. 50 Years On: The struggle for air quality in London since the great smog of December 1952 (Dec 2002).[dead link] External links A proper pea-souper. Photos of the 1952 London smog (nickelinthemachine.com). The London Smog Disaster of 1952 (Edinburgh University). 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos (BBC News, 1952-12-09). Days of toxic darkness (BBC News). v • d • e History of London Evolution Londinium · Lundenwic · City of London · City of Westminster · Middlesex · County of London · Greater London Government Metropolitan Board of Works · London County Council · Greater London Council · Greater London Authority · London Assembly · Mayor of London Events Peasants' Revolt · Black Death · Great Plague · Great Fire · 1854 cholera outbreak · Great Stink · Great Exhibition · 1908 Franco-British Exhibition · The Battle of Cable Street · The Blitz · Festival of Britain · Great Smog · Swinging London · London Plan · 7/7 bombings · Olympic Games (1908 · 1948 · 2012) · Paralympic Games (2012) Structures St Paul's Cathedral · Tower of London · Palace of Whitehall · Westminster Hall · London Bridge · Tower Bridge · Westminster Abbey · Big Ben · The Monument · Fortifications · 30 St Mary Axe · London City Hall · Shard London Bridge City of London City of London Corporation · Lord Mayor of the City of London · Wards of the City of London · Guildhall · Livery Companies · Lord Mayor's Show · City of London Police · Bank of England Services Bow Street Runners · Metropolitan Police Service (history) · London Ambulance Service · London Fire Brigade · Port of London Authority · London sewerage system · London Underground History of London category